There were the clay and wax moulds, the largest of which was for a cannon seventeen feet long, resembling a culverin The Spanish colonizers noted that all over the islands, Filipinos were growing rice, vegetables and cotton; raising swine, goats and fowls; making wine, vinegar and salt; weaving cloth and producing beeswax and honey.
The Filipinos were also mining gold in such places as Panay, Mindoro and Bicol. They wore colorful clothes, made their own gold jewelry and even filled their teeth with gold. Their houses were made of wood or bamboo and nipa. They had their own system of writing, 18 and weights and measures. Some communities had become renowned for their plank-built boats. They had no calendar but counted the years by moons and from one harvest to another.
In the interior and mountain settlements, many Filipinos were still living as hunters. They gathered forest products to trade with the lowland and coastal settlements. The Spaniards found no temples or places of worship. Although the Filipinos knew how to read and write in their own system, this was mainly used for messages and letters.
They seem not to have developed a written literary tradition at that time. Because of the abundance of natural resources, a benign environment and generally sparse population, there seemed to have been little pressure for invention and innovation among the early Filipinos. As governor Francisco de Sande observed in , the Filipinos do not understand any kind of work, unless it be to do something actually necessary -- such as to build their houses, which are made of stakes after their fashion; to fish, according to their method; to row, and perform the duties of sailors; and to cultivate the land The Spaniards established schools, hospitals and started scientific research and these had important consequences for the rise of the country's professions.
But the direction and pace of development of science and technology were greatly shaped by the role of the religious orders in the conquest and colonization of the archipelago and by economic and trade adopted by the colonial government. The interaction of these forces and the resulting socio-economic and political changes must, therefore, be analyzed in presenting a history of science and technology in the Philippines.
Spanish conquest and the colonization of the archipelago was greatly facilitated by the adoption of an essentially religious strategy which had earlier been successfully used in Latin America. Known as reduccion, it required the consolidation of the far-flung, scattered barangay communities into fewer, larger and more compact settlements within the hearing distance of the church bells.
This was a necessary response to the initial shortage of Spanish missionaries in the Philippines. This policy was carried out by a combination of religious conversion and military force. The net result of reduccion was the creation of towns and the foundation of the present system of local government.
The precolonial ruling class, the datus and their hereditary successors, were adopted by the Spanish colonial government into this new system to serve as the heads of the lowest level of local government; i. The colonial authorities found the new set-up expeditious for establishing centralized political control over the archipelago -- for the imposition and collection of the tribute tax, enforcement of compulsory labor services among the native Filipinos, and implementation of the compulsory sale of local products to the government.
The Filipinos naturally resisted reduccion as it took them away from their rice fields, the streams and the forests which were their traditional sources of livelihood and also subjected them to the onerous economic exactions by the colonial government. Thus the first century of Spanish rule brought about serious socio-economic dislocation and a decline kin agricultural production and traditional crafts in many places.
In the region surrounding the walled city of Manila, Filipinos migrated from their barangays to the city in order to serve in the convents and thus avoid the compulsory labor services in the shipyards and forests. They also influenced the development of technology and promotion of scientific research.
Cushner, S. Various decrees were issued in Spain calling for the establishment of a school system in the colony but these were not effectively carried out. Owing to the dearth of qualified teachers, textbooks and other instructional materials, primary instruction was mainly religious education.
Higher education was provided by schools set up by the different religious orders in the urban centers, most of them in Manila. Courses leading to the B. Clark Co. XLV, pp. The Colegio de San Ignacio prospered and was elevated to the rank of a royal and pontifical university in The Colegio de San Jose was seized by the Crown upon the expulsion of the jesuits and later became the medical and pharmacy departments of the University of Santo Tomas.
The Ateneo de manila is now a University run by the Jesuits. Alzona, op. See Alzon, op. Throughout the Spanish regime, the royal and pontifical University of Santo Tomas remained as the highest institution of learning. In , the schools of medicine and pharmacy were opened. From to , the University of Snato Tomas granted the degree of Licenciado en Medicina to 62 graduates. The study of pharmacy consisted of a preparatory course with subjects in natural history and general chemistry and five years of studies in subjects such as pharmaceutical operations at the school of pharmacy.
At the end of this period of the degree of Bachiller en Farmacia was granted. The degree of licentiate in pharmacy, which was equivalent to a master's degree, was granted after two years of practice in a pharmacy, one lof which could be taken simultaneously with the academic courses after the second year course of study. In , the university granted the bachelor's degree in pharmacy to its first six graduates in the school of pharmacy. Among them was Leon Ma. Guerrero, who is usually referred to as the "Father of Philippine Pharmacy" becuase of his extensive work on the medicinal plants of the Philippines and their uses.
It remained open until when its work was taken over by the Jesuit University of San Ignacio which was closed in See ibid. Tomas is based on an account written by Fray E. III Washington, D. See Miguel Ma. Valera, S. There were no schools offering engineering at that time. The few who studied engineering had to go to Europe. There was a Nautical School created on 1 January which offered a four-year course of study for the profession of pilot of merchant marine that included subjects as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, hydrography, meteorology, navigation and pilotage.
The School was designed to provide theoretical and practical education of skilled farmers and overseers and to promote agricultural development in the Philippines by means of observation, experiment and investigation. The professors in the School were agricultural engineers.
The School was financed by the government but it appears that its direction was also left to the priests. The certificates of completion of the course were awarded by the university of Santo Tomas or the Ateneo Municipal. It seems that the School was not successful as Filipinos did not show much inclination for industrial pursuits.
It provided for the establishment of a system of elementary, secondary and collegiate schools, teacher-training schools, and called for government supervision of these schools. The full implementation of this decree, however, was interrupted by the coming of the Americans in For this reason, only the more daring and persevering students were able to undertake advantaged studies. The attitude of the Spanish friars towards the study of the sciences and medicine was even more discouraging.
As one Rector of the Univesity of Santo Tomas in the s said: "Medicine and the natural sciences are 32 Blair and Robertson, op. The required course of study included subjects such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, agriculture, topography, linear and topography drawing, etc. Those who did were poorly trained when compared with those who had gone to European universities. Laboratory equipment was limited and only displayed for visitors to see.
There was little or no training in scientific research. In the University of Santo Tomas This was because the colonial government preferred to appoint Spanish and other European-trained professionals to 35 Quoted in James A.
Butnam's Sons, p. At the start of the American regime, a German physician of Manila submitted a report to the authorities on the conditions at UST's medical college. The report mentions, among others, its lack of library facilities, the use of outdated textbooks some published in , that no female cadaver had ever been dissected and the anatomy course was a "farce", that most graduates "never had attended even one case of confinement or seen a case of laparotomy" and that bacteriology had been introduced only since the American occupation and "was still taught without microscopes!
With the opening of the Suez Canal in and the consequent ease in travel and communications that it brought about, the liberal ideas and scientific knowledge of the West also reached the Philippines. The prosperity that resulted from increased commerce between the Philippines and the rest of the world enabled Filipino students to go to Europe for professional advanced studies.
It was this group of students which set up the Propaganda Movement in Europe that eventually led to the Philippine revolution against Spain. The religious orders provided most of the teaching force and institutions of learning in the colony.
This was similar to the situation that had earlier prevailed in Europe where they had come from during the medieval ages.
At such times, as I look back, it seems to me that I regarded the facts as potential enemies, as possible bearers of disaster.
I have perhaps been slow in comingto realize that the factS are always friendly. Every bit of evidence one can acquire, in any area, leads one that much closer to what is true. And being closer to the truth can never be a harmful or dangerous or unsatisfying thing. So while I still hate to readjust my thinking, still hate to give up old ways of perceiving and conceptualizing, yet at somedeeper level I have, to a considerable degree, cometo realize that these painful reorganizations are what is known as learning, and that thougb painful they ahvays lead to a more satisfying because somewhatmore accurate way of seeing life.
I feel if I can only puzzle my way through this problem that I will find a much more satisfying approximation to the truth. I feel sure the facts will be my friends. Somewherehere I want to bring in a learning which has been most rewarding, because it makes me feel so deeply akin to others. I can word it this way.
Whatis most personalis most general. There have been times when in talking with students or staff, or in my writing, I have expressed myself in waysso personal that I have felt I was expressing an attitude which it was probable no one else could understand, because it was so uniquely my own.
Twowritten ex- amples of this are the Preface to Client-Centered Therapy regarded as most unsuitable by the publishers , and an article on "Persons or Science. It has led me to believe that what is most personal and unique in each one of us is probably the very dement which would, if it were shared or expressed, speak most deeply to others.
This has helped me to understand artists and poets as people who have dared co ex- press the unique in themselves. There is one deep learning which is perhaps basic to all of the things I have said thus far.
It has been forced upon meby more than twenty-five years of trying to be helpful to individuals in per- sonal distress. It is simply this. It has been my experience that per- sons have a basically positive direction. In my deepest contacts with individuals in therapy, even those whose troubles are most disturb- ing, whose behavior has been most anti-social, whose feelings seem most abnormal, I find this to be true.
WhenI can sensitively under- stand the feelings which they are expressing, whenI amable to accept them as separate persons in their ownright, then I find that they tend to movein certain directions. And what are these direc- tions in which they tend to move? I have cometo feel that the more fully the individual is understood and accepted, the more he tends to drop the false fronts with which he has been meeting life, and the morehe tends to movein a direction which is forward.
I would not want to be misunderstood on this. I do not have a poflyanna view of humannature. I am quite aware that out of de- fensiveness and inner fear individuals can and do behave in ways which are incredibly cruel, horribly destructive, immature, regres- sive, anti-social, hurtful. Yet one of the most refreshing and invigor- ating parts of myexperience is to workwith such individuals and to discover the strongly positive directional tendencies which exist in them, as in all of us, at the deepest levels.
Let me bring this long list to a close with one final learning which can be stated very briefly. In my clients and in myself I find that when life is richest and most rewarding it is a flowing process. To experience this is both fascinating and a little frightening.
I find I am at my best whenI can let the flow of my experience carry me, in a direction which appears to be forward, toward goals of which I am but dimly aware.
WhenI am thus able to be in process, it is clear that there can be no closed system of beliefs, no unchanging set of principles which I hold. Life is guided by a changing understanding of and interpretation of my experience. It is always in process of becoming. I trust it is clear now why there is no philosophy or belief or set of principles wbich I could encourage or persuade others to have or hold. I can only try to live by my interpretation of the currenz meaningof myexperience, and try to give others the permission and freedom to develop their owninward freedom and thus their own meaningful intcrpretation of their ownexperience.
If there is such a thing as truth, this free individual process of search should, I believe, converge toward it. Andin a limited way, this is also what I seem to have experienced.
Partthey Curiously, II span span aa period of aix large segment of the country in their points of delivery -- Oberlin, Ohio; St. Louis, Missouri; and Pasadena,California. In the folio. It is of interest to me that I present the facilitating relationship, and the outcomes, v. To By. Y the skill-- do I have whatever it takes to be of help to such an indi- vidual? For more than twenty-five years I have been trying to meet this kind of challenge.
But most of all it has meant a continual learning from my own experience and that of my colleagues at the Counseling Center as we have endeavored to discover for ourselves effective means of working with people in distress. Gradually I have developed a way of working which grows our of that experience, and which can be tested, refined, and reshaped by further experience and by research. NowI would phrase the question in this way: Howcan I provide a relation- ship which this person mayuse for his own personal growth?
It is as I have come to put the question in this second way that I realize that whatever I have learned is applicable to all of my human relationships, not just to working with clients with problems.
Perhaps I shunld start with a negative learning. It has gradually been driven hometo me that I cannot be of help to this troubled person by meansof any intellectual or training procedure.
No ap- proach which relies upon knowledge, upon training, upon the ac- ceptance of something that is taught, is of any use. It is possible to exphin a person to himself, to pre- scribe steps which should lead him forward, to train him in knowl- edge about a more satisfying modeof life.
But such methodsare, in my experience, futile and inconsequential. The most they can ac- complish is some temporary change, which soon disappears, leaving the individual more than ever convinced of his inadequacy.
The failure of any such approach through the intellect has forced me to recognize that change appears to comeabout through experi- ence in a relationship. So I am going to try to state very.
I can state the overall hypothesis in one sentence, as follows. If I can provide a certain type of relationship, the other person will discover within himself the capacity to use that relationship for growth, and change and personal development will occur.
Let me take separately the three major phrases in this sentence and indicate something of the meaningthey have for me. Whatis this certain type of relationship I would like to provide?
I have found that the more that I can be genuine in the relation- ship, the more helpful it will be. This meansthat I need to be aware of my own feelings, in so far as possible, rather than presenting an outward facade of one attitude, while actually holding another atti- tude at a deeper or unconscious level. Being genuine also involves the willingness to be and to express, in mywords and mybehaxior, the various feelings and attitudes which exist in me. It is only in this way that the relationship can have reality, and reality seems deeply important as a first condition.
It is only by providing the genuine reality which is in me, that the other person can successfully seek for the reality in him. It seems ex- tremely important to be real. As a second condition, I find that the more acceptance and liking I feel toward this individual, the moreI will be creating a relation- ship which he can use. By acceptance I meana warmregard for him as a person of unconditional self-wotth--of value no matter what his condition, his behavior, or his feelings.
It means a respect and lilting for him as a separate person, a willingness for him to possess his ownfeelings in his ownway. It meansan acceptance of and re- gard for his attitudes of the moment,no matter how negative or positive, no matter how muchthey may contradict other attitudes he has held in the past.
This acceptance of each fluctuating aspect of this other person makesit for him a rehtionship of warmthand safety, and the safety of being liked and prized as a person seems a highly important element in a helping relationship.
It is only as I understand the feelings and thoughts which seem so horrible to you, or so weak, or so sentimental, or so bizarre-- it is only as I see them as you see them, and accept them and you, that you feel really free to explore all the hidden nooks and frightening crannies of your inner and often buried experience.
Tiffs freedom is an important condition of the rehtionslfip. There is implied here a freedom to explore oneself at both conscious and unconscious levels, as rapidly as one can dare to embark on this dangerous quest.
There is also a complete freedom from any type of moral or diagnostic evaluation, since all such evaluations are, I believe, always threatening. Thus the relationship which I have found helpful is characterized by a sort of transparency on my part, in which my real feelings are evident; by an acceptance of this other person as a separate person with value in his ownright; and by a deep empathic understanding which enables me to see his private world through his eyes.
When these conditions are achieved, I becomea companionto myclient, accompanyinghim in the frightening search for himself, which he nowfeels free to undertake. But I would say that whenI hold in myself the kind of at- titudes I have described, and whenthe other person can to some degree experience these attitudes, then I believe that change and con- structive personal developmentwill invariably occur--and I in- clude the word "invariably" only after long and careful considera- tion. The second phrase in myoverall hypothesis was that the individual will discover within himself the capacity to use this relationship for growth.
I will try to indicate somethingof the meaningwhich that phrase has for me. Gradually myexperience has forced me to conclude that the individual has within himself the capacity and the tendency, latent if not evident, to move forward toward maturity. In a suitable psychological cli- mate this tendency is released, and becomesactual rather than poten- tial. It is evident in the capacity of the individual to understand those aspects of his life and of himself which are causing him pain and dissatisfaction, an understanding which probes beneath his con- scious knowledgeof himself into those experiences which he has hidden from himself because of their threatening nature.
It shows itself in the tendency to reorganize his personality and his relation- ship to life in ways which are regarded as more mature. This tendency may become deeplv buried under layer after layer of encrusted psychological defenses; it may be hidden behind elaborate facades w a ch deny its existence; but it is mybe- lief that it exists in every individual, and awaits only the proper con- ditions to be released and expressed.
I have tried to put into words the type of capacity which the individual brings to such a rehtionship. The third phrase of my general statement was that change and per- sonal developmentwould occur. Here I can depart from speculation and bring in the steadily in- creasing body of sufid research knowledgewhich is accumulating.
Weknownow that individuals wholive in such a relationship even for a rehtively limited numberof hours showprofound and signifi- cant changes in personality, attitudes, and behavior, changes that do not occur in matched control groups. In such a relationship the in- dividual becomesmore integrated, more effective.
He shows fewer of the characteristics which are usually termed neurotic or psychotic, and more of the characteristics of the healthy, well-functioning person. He changes his perception of himself, becomingmore re- alistic in his views of self. He becomesmore like the person he wishes to be. He values himself more highly.
He is more serf-con- fident and self-directing. He has a better understanding of himself, becomesmore open to his experience, denies or represses less of his experience. He becomesmore accepting in his attitudes toward others, seeing others as more similar to himself. In his behavior he shows similar changes. He is less frustrated by mess, and recovers from stress more quickly. He becomesmore ma- ture in his everyday behavior as this is observed by friends. He is less defensive, moreadaptive, more able to meet situations creatively.
These are some of the changes which we now knowcomeabout in individuals who have completed a series of counseling interviews in which the psychological atmosphere approximates the relationship I described. Each of the statements madeis based upon obiective evi- dence. Muchmore research needs to be done, but there can no longer be any doubt as to the effectiveness of such a relationship in producing personality change. The ex- citement comesfrom the fact that these findings justify an even broader hypothesis regarding all humanrelationships.
Thus it seems reasonable to hypo- thesize that if the parent creates with his child a psychological cli- mate such as we have described, then the child will becomemore self-directing, socialized, and mature.
To the extent that the teacher creates such a relationship with his class, the student will becomea self-initiated learner, more original, more self-disciplined, less amy ious and other-directed. If the administrator, or military or in- dustrial leader, creates such a climate within his organization, then his staff win becomemore self-responsible, more creative, better able to adapt to new problems, more basically cooperative.
It ap- pears possible to me that we are seeing the emergenceof a new field of humanrelationships, in which we mayspecify that if certain attitudinal conditions exist, then certain definable changes will oc- cur. I have tried to share with you something of what I have learned in trying to be of help to troubled, unhappy, maladjusted individuals.
I have formulated the hypothesis which has gradually come to have mean- hag for me-- not only in myrelationship to clients in distress, but in all myhumanrelationships. I have indicated that such research knowledgeas we have supports this hypothesis, but that there is muchmore investigation needed. I should like now to pull together into one statement the conditions of this general hypothesis, and tile effects which are specified. I believe that this statement holds whether I am speaking of my relationship with a client, with a group of students or staff members, with my family or children.
It seems to me that we have here a gen- eral hypothesis which offers exciting possibilities for the develop- ment of creative, adaptive, autonomouspersons. Louis, in The other, in this sense, may be one individual or a group. To put it in another way, a help- ing relationship might be defined as one in which one of the par- ticipanrs intends that there should come about, in one or both parties, more appreciation of, more expression of, more functional use of the latent inner resources of the individual Nowit is obvious that such a definition covers a wide range of relationships which usually are intended to facilitate growth.
It would certainly include the relationship between mother and child, father and child. It wouldinclude the rehtiomhip betweenthe physician and his patient. The relationship between teacher and pupil would often comeunder this definition, though someteachers would not have the promotion of growth as thdr intent. It includes almost all counselor-client rehtionships, whether we are speaking of educational counseling, vocational counseling, or personal counsel- hag.
In this last-mentioned area it would include the wide range of relationships between the psychotherapist and the hospitalized psy- chotic, the therapist and the troubled or neurotic individual, and the relationship between the therapist and the increasing number of so- called "normal" individuals who enter therapy to improve their own functioning or accelerate their personal growth.
These are largely one-to-one relationships. But we should also think of the large numberof individual-group interactions which are intended as helping relationships. Someadministrators intend that their relationship to their staff groups shall be of the sort which promotes growth, though other administrators would not have this purpose. The interaction betweenthe group therapy leader and his group belongs here. So does the rehtionship of the community consultant to a communitygroup.
Increasingly the interaction be- tween the industrial consultant and a managementgroup is intended as a helping relationship. Perhaps this listing will point up the fact that a great manyof the relationships in which we and others are involved fall within this category of interactions in which there is the purpose of promoting developmentand more mature and ade- quare functioning.
Andat the other end of the scale is it possible to discern those characteristics which make a relation- ship unhelpful, even though it was the sincere intent to promote growth and development? There has not been a large amount of research in this area as yct, but what there is is stimulating and suggestive.
In so doing, oversimplification is necessary, and I am quite aware that I am not doing full justice to the researches l am mcntion- ing, but it maygive you the feeling that factual advances are bcing madeand pique your curiosity enough to examine the studies them- selves, if you have not already done so. Let us look at some of these. A careful study of parent-child relationships made some years ago by Baldwin and others 1 at the Fels Institute contains intcresting evidence.
Of the various clusters of parental attitudes toward chil- dren, the "acceptant-democratic" seemed most growth-facilitating. Children of these parents with their warmand equalitarian atximdes showed an accelerated intellectual development an increasing I. Thoughsomewhat slow initially in social development, they were, by the time they reached school age, popular, friendly, non-aggressive leaders. They are emotionally unstable, rebellious, aggressive, and quarrelsome. The children of parents with other attitude syndromes tend in various respects to fall in between these extremes.
I am sure that these findings do not surprise us as rehted to child development. I would like to suggest that they probably apply to other relationships as well, and that the counselor or physician or administrator who is warmly emotional and expressive, respectful of the individuality of himself and of the other, and whoexhibits a non- possessive caring, probably facilitates self-realizarion muchas does a parent with these attitudes.
Let me turn to another careful study in a very different area. Whitehornand Betz 2, 18 investigated the degree of success achieved by youngresident physicians in working with schizo- phrenic patients on a psychiatric ward.
They chose for special study the seven whohad been outstandingly helpful, and seven whosepa- tients had shownthe least degree of improvement. Each group had treated about fifty patients. The investigators examinedall the avail- able evidence to discover in what ways the A group the successful group differed from the B group.
Several significant differences were found. The physicians in the A group tended to see the schiz- ophrenic in terms of the personal meaningwhich various behaviors had to the patient, rather than seeing him as a case history or a descriptive diagnosis.
They also tended to work toward goals which were oriented to the personality of the patient, rather than such goals as reducing the symptomsor curing the disease. It was found that the helpful physicians, in their day by day interaction, primarily madeuse of active personal participation--a person-to-person re- htionship.
They made less use of procedures which could be classed as "passive permissive. Finally, they were muchmore hkely than the B group to develop a relationship in which the patient felt trust and confidence in the physician. Although the authors cautiously emphasize that these findings re- late only to the treatment of schizophrenics, I am inclined to dis- agree. I suspect that similar facts would be found in a research study of almost any class of helping relationship.
Another interesting study focuses upon the way in which the per- son being helped perceives the relationship. Heine 11 studied in- dividuals whohad gone for psychotherapeutic help to psychoan- alytic, client-centered, and Adlerian therapists. Regardless of the type of therapy, these clients report similar changes in themselves. But it is their perception of the relationship which is of particular interest to us here. Whenasked what accounted for the changes which had occurred, they expressed some differing explanations, de- pending on the orientation of the therapist.
But their agreement on the major elements they had found helpful was even more significant. They indicated that these attitudinal elements in the relationship accounted for the changes which had taken place in themselves: the trust they had felt in the therapist; being understood by the therapist; the feeling of independence they had had in makingchoices and de- cisions. The therapist procedure which they had found most help- ful was that the therapist clarified and openly stated feelings which the client had been approaching hazily and hesitandy.
There was also a high degree of agreement amongthese clients, regardless of the orientation of their therapists, as to what elements had been unhelpful in the relationship. Such therapist attitudcs as lack of interest, remoteness or distance, and an over-degree of synl- pathy, were perceived as unhelpful. As to procedures, they had found it unhelpful whentherapists had given direct specific advice regarding decisions or had emphasizedpast history rather than pre- sent problems.
New York: Harcourt Brace, Jovanovich. Google Scholar. Google Preview. Baye M. Caillaud B. Cowell A. Cringely R. Elfenbein D. Evans D. Farrell J. Hausman J. Leonard G. Jeon D. Coronel, S. Coronel, Ed. Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. Cullinane, M. Dal Bo, E. Dal Bo and J. Gerring, J. Bond, W. Barndt, and C. World Politics 57 3 : Hutchcroft, P.
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